An ogle on our 'Pukhri(s)'

Dr. Krishnakanta Kshetrimayum *

Nungjreng Pukhri is a holy pond for the meiteis situated inside the sacred Kangla :: Pix - Pradip Kumar

In Manipuri society, the role of a pond is manifold and makes an absolute contribution to daily life. Yet, ponds have been a victim of serious scientific and social negligence. This article attempts to throw some lights on the past and present state of our ponds from the Manipuri socio-cultural perspective so as to enhance database on pond studies.

Recent studies based on Quick Bird satellite image of 61 cm resolution prepared at 1:4000 scale (MRSAC, Government of Manipur) revealed that Manipur valley occupies an area of about 1920 km2 in which natural wetlands cover 61.2 km2. Out of this wetlands area, ponds contribute an area of 6.8 km2 which turns out to be around 0.35% of the total area of the valley.

The local term 'pukhri' is believed to be borrowed from Bengali word called 'pukur' which means pond. The term 'pond' is a variant form of the word pound, meaning a confining enclosure (Oxford English Dictionary). Scientific definition of a pond is still not universally defined. However, the international Ramsar wetland convention sets the upper limit for pond size as 8 ha.

British charity pond conservation have defined a pond to be a man-made or natural water body which is between 1 ha and 2 ha in area which holds water for four months of the year or more. Other European biologists have set the upper size limit at 5 ha. By and large, a pond implies a quite small body of water, generally smaller than one would require a boat to cross or a body of water where even its deepest areas are reached by sunlight or where a human can walk across the entire body of water without being submerged (Kennedy, 2010).

It is believe that the use of 'pukhris' by the people of valley and other places dates back to the 1st Century during Nongdon Lairen Pakhangba (33-154 AD) kingdom. 'Cheitharol Kumbada' (the royal chronicle of Kangleipak) refers that ancient rituals were performed on the bank of ponds. Nungjen pukhri located inside the Kangla palace was believed to be abode of Lord Pakhangba. Other ponds of Kangla like Koubru pukhri, Chingkhei Nungjeng, Manung Nungjeng and Lai Pukhri are still considered as sacred where religious rituals were performed.

Pukhris were used for recreation and adornment purposes since the early times. King Khunjaoba (1632-1666 AD) excavated a moat which locally called 'Thangapat' on the western side of the Kangla Fort for fortification and beautification of Kangla Fort. Ponds were also use as venue for performing Ras Lila during Maharaja Bhagyachandra (Meidingu Chingthang Khomba) time (1749-1798 AD). Such a pukhri is Raj Mandal pukhri located at Langthabal. Ningthem pukhri which is considered as the largest pukhri (4031 m2) in the valley was excavated by King Garib Niwaj (Pamheiba) in 1726 (Encyclopedia of Manipur, Vol.3).

In the modern Manipuri society, pukhris are owned individually or by community or by state or central. Presently, pukhris are used mainly for domestic and irrigation water supply, for fish production, for recreation and for ritual activities. Ponds render habitat for flora and fauna. Commonly found fishes in the ponds are Clarias batrachus ( Ngakra), Heteropneustes fossilis (Ngachik), Notopterus chitala (Ngapai), Channa striatus (Ngamu-porom), Channa marulius (Porom), Channa gachua (Meiteingamu), Anabas testudineus (Ukabi), Colisa faciata (Ngapema), Monopterus albus (Ngaprum), Lepidocephalus guntea (Ngakrijou), Ambassis nama (Ngamhai), Amblypharyngodon mola (Mukanga), Macrobrachium lamerii (Khajing), Puntius ticto (Ngakha), Tilapia mossambica (Tunghanbi), Acanthopthalmus pangia (Nganap).

Generally, floras in the ponds are dominated by phytoplankton (Chlorophyceae sp., Bacillariophyceae sp., Zoomastigophora sp.), zooplankton (Cyclops sp., Chydorous sp., Asplanchna sp.) and macrovegetation. Macrovegetation consists of many species of seasonal, annual and perennial plants. Commonly found genera are Centralla asiatica, Chara sp., Elipta alba, Euryale ferox, Marshilea quadrifolia and Scirpus sp. (Dasgupta, 1993). Common insects habitat in ponds are Grasshopper sp. Corixa sp. (water boatman), Notonecta sp. (Backswimmer), Gerris sp. (water strider), Cybister sp. (diving beetle), Sympetrum sp. (dragonfly), Nepa sp., Mantis sp. (Soram et al., 2012).

The sources of water in the ponds could be surface water, groundwater, inflow streams and springs. Surface water is the main source of water because most of the ponds in the valley are created in clayey soils. Ponds in the valley are also hydraulically connected i.e., can receive groundwater inflow or can recharge groundwater through hyporheic zone.

Hydrogeologically, the valley consists of alluviums of Quaternary formation and semi-consolidated formations of shale, siltstones and conglomerate of Tertiary group. Groundwater is restricted to weathered residium of semi-consolidated rocks and intergranular pore spaces of alluvial deposits under water table to confined conditions. Generally, depth to water table varies from 2 to 7 mbgl with aquifer thickness range from 10 to 20 mbgl. The average transmissivity and hydraulic conductivity ranges between 4.30 and 89 m2 /day and 0.67 to 16 m/day respectively. The water level fluctuation of pre and post monsoon is about 12 m (Central Ground Water Board, 2009).

Hydroperiod affects pond characteristics, including the type of vegetation, nutrient cycling, and the types of invertebrates, fish and bird species. Based on the database generated from Google image 2013 Digital Globe, geographic coordinates and area of some of the major pukhris in the Imphal valley are
o Ningthem pukhri (24°47'56''N 93°57'16''E, 4031m2),
o Naharup Awang leikai Road pukhri (24°47'26''N 93°58'15''E, 1073m2),
o Kongba Uchekon Khunou pukhri (24°46'19''N 93°58'13''E, 916m2),
o Manipur University pukhri (24°44'56''N 93°55'43''E, 880m2),
o Patsoi pukhri (24°47'07''N 93°52'42''E, 746m2),
o Sagolband pukhri (24°47'45''N 93°54'03''E, 742m2),
o Kongba pukhri (24°45'30''N 93°57'46''E , 736m2),
o Heinoupok pukhri (24°47'33''N 93°54'03''E, 663m2),
o Khongman pukhri (24°45'30''N 93°57'46''E, 639m2),
o Wakha pukhri (24°48'00''N 93°59'01''E, 607m2) and
o Makha leikai pukhri (24°46'19''N 93°58'13''E, 512m2).

Urban sprawling studies based on Landsat imageries for the years 1977, 1990, 2000 and 2010 show that the area of Imphal city has expanded from 4.29km2 in 1977 to 34.2 km2 in 2010 (Khan et al. 2012). This urbanization, massive increase in population (from 22.94 lakhs in 2001 census to 27.21 lakhs in 2011 census) and shrinkage of wetlands cause reduction in the number of pre-existing ponds. Also, mismanagement and negligence on the treatment of domestic solid waste deteriorate the quality of pond water.

Based on recent studies on water quality of ponds carried out by Manipur Pollution Control Board revealed that pond water of the valley has high level of bacteria content (1000 to 5000 MPN). Artificial eutrophication coupled with climate change as it reduces oxygen level and increases acidic level in the pond waters may also lead to the extinction of some fish species. International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) announced seven fish species of Ngakha Meingangbi (Puntius manipurensis), Ngatup (Schistura Kanjupkhulensis), Ngatup makhal ama (Schistura minutes), Ngatup manba nga (Schistura reticula), Ching-ngakra (Pterocryptis barakensis), Ching-Ukabi (Badis tuivaiei) and Nung-nga (Psilorhynchus microphthalamus) as 'endangered freshwater fish species' recently.

Therefore, pukhris (ponds) have scientific, social, economical and emotional relevance since the beginning of our Civilization and land history. It is high time for all of us to avoid demolishing ponds and support to rejuvenate and maintain all the existing ponds at the best possible ways. This form of water body must be highly regarded and respected considering the age-old relationship it bears. Our community and its communal history have complicated sacred ties with the existing and extinct (forgotten) ponds of our land.

High time that we do our part of responsibility by taking up literal and sincere steps against man-made acts that speed up further degradation of such water bodies. Let our pukhri(s) find a solid space in the corner of our hearts and minds. Today is never too late to begin being the most responsible citizen of our land. Let 'Pukhri(s)' survive at its best. The best will prevail if and only if we pay them the best tributes now and hail their importance with the purest of intentions.